3. Essays on Teaching and Learning

Mind Maps: a way to permanent knowledge using technology
Marlon Marmolejo
Materials Development for Foreign Language Classrooms
Professor: Marinella Garatti


Why can’t students remember more? It seems to be the question without answer for millions of teachers around the world. “Memory and recall are critical elements in the learning process for very practical reasons. The only way we know that students have learned something is if they can demonstrate recall of it” (Jensen, 1998). But how can we expect this to happen when they seem to be unable to have access to the knowledge stored in their brains? Maybe it is time to stop sending students to their uncharted world of information without maps to guide their way to that knowledge. I think that the best way to know what we are looking for, it is to know where to find it. And perhaps, with the help of technology, students can learn how to design their own memory devices for easier, faster and better recall. This paper aims to show how Mind Maps, created with or without technology, can help retain information and most importantly, how to find it more efficiently when needed, making recall an easier task.
“A Mind Map or Mind Mapping is a pictorial representation how a central concept is linked to other concepts and issues.” (Farrand et al., 2002). This is possible through the use of “schemata”, that explains the ability to acquire more information due to previous knowledge that is already possessed. For most researchers, “Mental Maps, Mind Maps, Cognitive Maps, Cognitive Models or Mental Models are a type of mental processing, composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual can acquire, code, store, recall and decode information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday or metaphorical spatial environment.” This explains why learning must be conceived as a “personal experience”, though the subject matter to be learned is the same to a group of individuals. For example, in a class where teaching the different parts of the house and furniture are the main goal, students will store and recall the information depending on the way they prioritized them when exposed to it. Some will not have any problem recreating vocabulary related to the rooms of the house and maybe reproduce the one related to furniture with much more difficulty because they might even have at home half of the items mentioned in class. It is at this moment when the concept of Mind Map plays an important role in learning. “Mind Maps are similar to a semantic network or cognitive map but there are no normal restrictions on the kinds of links used.” (Farrand et al., 2002). The beauty of the use of Mind Maps lies in the fact that it makes learning a unique and personalized experience. By the use of colors, words, lines, images, students get to deconstruct and reconstruct information in their own terms. They organize their ideas (information) according to the importance of the concepts by dividing then into groups, branches, areas, subareas or whatever they might consider relevant. This explains why some people can remember where things are, even though they might not seem to be in the appropriate place for others; these people have their own “tidy mess”. Students cannot be told where to store the information, which our traditional way of teaching and evaluating is forcing them to do.
When students create their own Mind Maps, they elaborate “a multicolored and image centered radial diagram that represents semantic or other connections between portions of learned material” (Farrand et al., 2002), whose unique and personal way of gathering information for the construction of the semantic structure help the reconsolidation of memories. For example, if we were to read a short a list of 10 words to a group of students and insisted on its being reproduced in the same linear way that it was taught, we would be heading for disaster. But if we allowed students to organized it and reproduce it in any way they want, we will get better results. Why? Because, students will categorize, divide or group the pieces of information based on their preferences and experience; that is by creating their own Mind Maps. As “there is no single location for all our memories” (Jensen 1998), certainly, there cannot be a single way to store memories (information).
“People have been using Mind Maps for centuries, for learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking and problem solving in areas such as engineering, education and psychology, although the origin of the Mind map has been made by a British popular psychology author, Tony Buzan” (Farrand et al., 2002). Tony Buzan “claimed the idea was inspired by the general semantics of science fiction novels, such as those of A. E. Van Vogt and L. Ron Hubbard.” He also “argues that “traditional” articles rely on the reader to scan left to right and top to bottom, whilst what actually happens is that the brain will scan the entire page in a non-linear fashion.” This brings to my attention the way Mind Maps work, where the learners might focus their attention on a specific piece of information regardless of its position on the text, which might explain why some recall certain information more easily that is not relevant to others. And if this is true, I wonder if our students could benefit more if we could tailor our lessons and activities in a non-linear fashion. I will end this paper by presenting and trying to explain a year round project that might help adapt our traditional linear designed textbooks and way of teaching to Mr. Buzan’s non-linear concept.
Patricia Woffe (2001) states “that whatever event that comes to mind, we remember it, not in words, but in images and sounds.” And she also says “that when we describe the event to someone else, we use words of course, but what we are describing is what we are seeing and hearing inside our heads.” I think this a great way to illustrate a Mind Map, but it is merely an experience outside the academic or scholar world. How one can bring this easy way of recollection of experiences into the classroom? We should start by analyzing the main tool students utilize to store information (input) and this is “note taking”. The traditional linear form of taking notes can become a straight jacket for the students’ brains. On the other hand, “Software and technique research have concluded that managers and students find the techniques of Mind Mapping to be useful, being better able to retain information and ideas than by using traditional 'linear' note taking methods.” (Farrand et al., 2002).
Buzan (1991) “claims that the Mind Map is a vastly superior note taking method because it does not lead to the alleged "semi-hypnotic trance" state induced by the other note forms. Buzan also claims that the mind map utilizes the full range of left and right human cortical skills, balances the brain, taps into the 99% of your unused mental potential, and taps into your intuition (which he calls "superlogic"). It also seems that the use of Mind Maps in note taking can tap into the Multiple Intelligence Theory (Gardner, 1999) since students can utlize their stronger skills when creating their Mind Maps. For example, by designing charts or visual outlines (visual-spatial intelligence), by asigning numerical values to the different elements (mathematical intelligence) or by associating the element to favorite tunes or songs (musical intelligence).
Mind Maps provide students with the freedom to create symbols and images to illustrate their idas as well as beautify their classwork. This makes Mind Mapping very appealing to most students “since the details are organized in categories, and a visual pattern unifies the separate parts as a whole.” (Campbell et al., 2004). When using Mind Mapping the possibilities are endless, which reinforces the sense of individuality of every student in the classroom.
“Mind Maps can be drawn by hand, either as 'rough notes', for example, during a lecture or meeting, or can be more sophisticated in quality. Examples of both are illustrated. There are also a number of software packages available for producing Mind Maps.” (Farrand et al., 2002). These are the foundation structures of a Mind Map, although these are open to free interpretation by the individual:
Mind Mapping guidelines
1. Start in the centre with an image of the topic, using at least 3 colours.
2. Use images, symbols, codes and dimensions throughout your Mind Map.
3. Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters.
4. Each word/image must be alone and sitting on its own line.
5. The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The central lines are thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they radiate out from the centre.
6. Make the lines the same length as the word/image.
7. Use colours – your own code – throughout the Mind Map.
8. Develop your own personal style of Mind Mapping.
9. Use emphasis and show associations in your Mind Map.
10. Keep the Mind Map clear by using Radiant hierarchy, numerical order or outlines to embrace your branches.
( BUZAN, Tony. The Mind Map Book. Chapter "Mind Mapping Guidelines).
I find Mr. Buzan’s Mind Mapping guidelines very assertive and useful but at the same time a little constricting due to its physical nature. I think the Mind Mapping goes beyond physical representations into more abstract ones. Put more simply, Mind Maps become “cognitive maps that are a way we use to structure and store spatial knowledge, allowing the "mind's eye" to visualize images in order to reduce cognitive load, and enhance recall and learning of information. This type of spatial thinking can also be used as a metaphor for non-spatial tasks, where people, performing non-spatial tasks involving memory and imaging, use spatial knowledge to aid in processing the task.” (Kitchin, 1994). This makes reference to an old method to recall information which is the “method of loci”. To use this method one must first memorize the appearance of a physical location (for example, the sequence of rooms in a building). When a list of words, for example, needs to be memorized, the learner visualizes an object representing that word in one of the pre-memorized locations. To recall the list, the learner mentally "walks through" the memorized locations, noticing the objects placed there during the memorization phase” (Belleza, 1999). It is said that “this method was originally used by students of rhetoric in ancient Rome when memorizing speeches.”
Based on the information gathered from the concept of Mind Mapping and the “method loci”, I think the following school project can help students achieve better long term results in the language class through the Mind Map strategies. The project will not only let the students use the strategies from Mind Mapping, but will also make our traditional textbooks more computer friendly. Thus providing more options and training with the new technology.
This simple activity will encourage students to use web-based information and exercises to make their textbooks evolve with the class and new topics throughout the year. And at the same time develop their Mind mapping skill. The project consists of 6 steps.
Step 1. Character assignment
Students will be asked to create a character native to the country whose language they are being taught. This character will be given a name and basic personal information that will be kept in a dossier.
Step 2. Dossier assignment
Students will be asked to keep a dossier with the character’s personal information. This dossier will be revised at the end of every quarter. Students will be also requested to present their character orally to the teacher and the class.
Step 3. Character development.
As the year progresses, the character’s persona will begin to evolve with every single topic and lesson covered in class. For example, after studying family members and relatives’ relationships, the character will be assigned one with names and how he or she is related to the others.
Step 4. Virtual information.
Students will be asked to do web-research inherent to the character’s country of origin to provide real biographical information to their character. Some assignments will be posted on line as a way to prepare students for the undergraduate and graduate demands of college. A website must be created by the teacher since students will be cutting, pasting and printing their assignments from it. This will provide a safe link for students and a way to be monitored by the teacher every time they sign in.
Step 5. Making virtual friends.
Students will be asked to create an electronic address for his character in order to communicate via e-mail with some other student’s character as if they were e-pals (Pen Pals). This will foster written communication among students without any anxiety. Some homework assignments will consist in presenting a copy of some of those e-mails. It is very important to monitor constantly to make sure students are making progress with their assignments.
Step 6. Final presentation.
At the end of the school year students will have a final presentation where they will display and explain their character biographically.
I firmly believe that this activity will exploit a regular textbook by providing it with a technological dimension that students will not only enjoy, but will learn from. This will also give teachers the chance to pilot their own material and the chance to modify textbooks to suit the students and teachers’ needs. If you decide to run this activity through the principles of materials development stated by Tomlinson (1998) you will find the results quite reassuring.
I think that the benefits of using Mind Maps, both mental and physical ones (concept maps, spider maps, charts, etc.) are limitless, especially with the help of technology. Mind Maps represent a great stimulus for the “active processing” (Memory Storage Processes) that turns short-term into long-term memory. Unfortunately, they also have their shortcomings. “Research by Farrand, Hussain, and Hennessy (2002) found that the Mind Map technique had a limited but significant impact on recall only” which means we still need to deal with the information storage problem. Students might also find that Mind Mapping represents dealing with a new, unfamiliar technique to embrace it immediately as “memory enhancing” and therefore relying back on the all techniques. Pressley, VanEtten, Yokoi, Freebern, and VanMeter (1998) “found that learners tended to learn far better by focusing on the content of learning material than rather worrying over any particular form of note-making.” The question that still remains after these findings for many would be: why bother? I have to say in defense of Mind Mapping that this strategy is in its way to be perfected and, as any other strategy, it cannot offer all the perfect solutions to the problems of learning. However, in consort with the many others that we use in teaching and learning, it becomes a strong ally in the conquest of knowledge.

Bibliography
Buzan, T. (1991) The Mind Map Book.
New York: Penguin

Belleza, F. S. (1999) The Spatial Arrangement Mnemonic, Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Applied, 5(1): 54-75.

Campbell, L. Campbell, B. Dickenson, D. (2004) Teaching and Learning through Multiple
Intelligences. “Everyone is an artist, visual-spatial intelligence”.
Pearson Ed.

Cognitive map.
Retrieved Dec. 3rd, 2005

Farrand, P. Hussain, F. et al. (2002) The efficacy of the “Mind map” study technique.
May; 36(5):426-31. EBSCOHost. Retrieve Dec. 3rd, 2005

Harper, Jane et al. (1997) The Coming of Age of the Profession “Issues and Emerging
Ideas For the teaching of Foreign Languages”.
Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
“Technology a Step Forward in the Teaching of Foreign Languages”
Jorge H. Cubillos, University of Delaware. P. 37-52.

Jensen, Erick (1998) Teaching with the Brain in Mind: “Memory and Recall”
Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD Publishers. 11, 99-112.

Kitchin, R. M. (1994) Cognitive Maps: What Are They and Why Study Them?
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 14: 1-19.

Mind Map.
Retrieved Dec. 3rd, 2005.

Salend, Spencer J. (2005) Creating Inclusive Classrooms “Effective and Reflective
Practices for All Students” Fifth Edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Publishers.

Tomlinson, Brian (1998) Materials Development in Language Teaching.
Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.


Wolfe, Patricia (2001) Brain Matters: “Using visual and Auditory Senses”
Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD Publishers. 9, 151-169.

2. Essays about teaching and Learning

Marlon Marmolejo
336575 Teaching reading and writing in ESL
Professor: Vern Todd
On Reading and Writing

Skills-Based Instruction Vs Literature-Based Reading Instruction (Whole Language Approach)
I decided to approach this assignment by contrasting the two most important theories on teaching reading and writing and to present their pros and cons, because they would determine teachers’ classroom practices, techniques and approaches toward teaching and learning. I also hope to be able to demonstrate my preference toward the literature-based reading approach and at the same time relate it to my experience as reader and writer of both English and Spanish.
I am and I will always be a second language speaker/learner, which means I come from a different linguistic background where I learned to read and write in dissimilar circumstances. I am a native Spanish speaker; therefore, learning to read and write was quite easy due to the phonetic characteristics of the Spanish language. There are no linguistic tricks. We pronounce the phonemes that we see in print and we write the same phonemes that are represented exactly by letters of the alphabet. It sounds wonderful, doesn’t it? However, I think, this leads to a mere functional literacy since we take reading and writing for granted. Yes, we learned to read and write, but we are not taught to read and write in a way that involves higher order thinking skills. We spend thirteen years of schooling learning to read and write, but sadly not to think –we do not read nor write to continue learning.
I did not realize my deficiencies as a learner until I enrolled in the Masters program at New Paltz University and I was faced with the fact that I could not write an essay properly. I was very successful memorizing and regurgitating the information, but I was not generating information; I was not able to “create knowledge” (Finn J. Patrick, 1999. Literacy with an Attitude). It has taken a lot work and frustration to move from one discourse to the other. I have mentioned this because I think it is a relevant point that would define me as a teacher and would also influence my pedagogical decisions in the classroom.
In terms of decisions, especially choosing strategies and techniques to teach reading and writing to ELLs call for a deep analysis of what it means to really know how to read and write. This is the first time that I am asked to explain what it means to be able to read and write. I thought it would be very easy to provide a straightforward answer. Surprisingly, I was wrong. I cannot even end a sentence without starting all over to make sure my explanation includes my experiences as a learner and the different dimensions of the process since there are many reasons why we read and write. These reasons determine the level of involvement with the text and the purpose of the task. Consequently, explaining the process of learning to read and write is as elaborate as its definition. This is even more complex when it involves learning to read and write in a second language after having gone through the process in one’s native language.
Another important factor that comes to my mind it is to consider whether reading leads to writing, writing to reading, or just to think of them as simultaneous processes. I think it is crucial to keep these questions at hand since any teaching approach that we decide to implement will be highly influenced by our beliefs and practices. One thing is for sure, whatever approach we choose to teach reading and writing must be accompanied by its own strategies and techniques to ensure that the reader is engaged in a process of thinking to develop his own strengths and ability to link his background knowledge with the information from the printed page.
The development of such ability of linking the reader/writer’s background knowledge with the text is not the only challenge to conquer. It seems to me that the most difficult for the challenged reader/writer is to realize that “written language is not simply oral language written down. We do not learn to read and write speech. We learn to read and write written text” (Purcell-Gates, 1995, Other People’s Words). Unlike, skills-based instruction where children learn from materials especially written to teach sequence skills, the literature-based instruction fosters the use of materials that fulfill authentic functions of print, such as informational notices, game instructions and books written by the reader. This is also known as the “whole language approach, which favors “why” over “how to.” In other words, the literature-based approach emphasizes the reading and writing to learn about the world first, and not the learning to read and write, as stated by its counterpart.
According to the language researchers’ position, one that I also subscribe to, “reading instruction and writing instruction are seen as complementary because they are complementary language processes, that is, one writes for a reader and reads from a writer. Many of the strategies learned for writing help the writer read and comprehend written text and vice versa” (http://sde.state.ok.us/acrob/pass/PASSGrade/e-Grade2). It is clear according to this explanation that it is futile to try to separate the processes (reading and writing) or to start an argument to favor one process over the other. On the other hand, we have to look at the different purpose that each approach offers to take a stand and choose the principles that will guide our students’ instruction in terms of learning to read and write.
I do favor the literature-based reading instruction for the following reasons. First, I read recently Literacy with an Attitude by Patick J. Finn, a book in which he discusses differences in the type of instruction that is being offered to working class and the upper class (the elite) in America. Through various situations and examples, he illustrates how the upper class is being instructed toward empowerment through a liberating or powerful literacy, while the working class is being instructed with a domesticating literacy. He also classifies teachers into two groups: those who domesticate (the gatekeepers), and those who liberate (the liberators). The danger of the skills-based instruction is that it trains the students to follow rules and be obedient learners who never learn to be independent. Consequently, seeing the teacher as the owner of the knowledge.
The skills-based instruction is teaching a domesticated version of literacy, whereas the literature-based reading instruction is not only teaching the learners to read and write, but also to see the connection of the knowledge from different content areas. These students learn to see the power of the print in meaningful contexts. Needles to say, I want to become a instructor who teaches his students through an empowering literacy regardless of social strata, gender, religion, ethnicity, origin or parents’ political affiliation. Nevertheless, the skills-base instruction cannot be completely disregarded, because it has its advantages too. It can work on specific deficits in students (lack of phoneme awareness) to speed up the process by targeting the problem. However, I think that the teacher must make sure the student moves on and does not get stuck on learning the mechanics of reading and writing solely.
Second reason why I favor literature-based instruction is because it allows the teacher to create a rich cognitive environment through thematic planning and instruction while the student continues exploring the world and acquiring knowledge from many areas. This is “based on the assumption that learning a second language is not an end in and of itself. Language is learned in order to learn about other things, such as social studies, biology, computer science, and math” (Anderson, 1999, Exploring Second Language Reading). This also shows the importance of developing content area language proficiency (CALP), which takes much longer to develop than the basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS).
The third reason why I considered the whole language approach as the one that has the most to offer is based on the point of view of language researchers who claim that “A child's writing development parallels their development as a reader. Print awareness develops in young children as a result of being read to by adults and having other literacy experiences.” (www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading101/writing). There is no doubt that reading and writing is a social activity. By social, I mean it starts at home and in highly influence by the literacy environment of the parents’ practices. We came in contact with our first words in print at home. We were probably read our favorite books before going to bed. Moreover, invented spelling came as a way to recreate the stories we were read and to show our desire to be able to write our thoughts and experiences.
Sylvia Ashton-Warner must have been quite aware of this when she developed her theory of the key words, which were the basis of her organic reading and organic writing approach toward learning. She also knew that her theory would work well with the whole language approach to reading and writing because it would provide her students with a limitless body of knowledge in a infinite learning environment. Finally, the literature-based reading approach builds on the students’ confidence by acknowledging the learner’s own experiences and background from which knowledge would be generated. Another factor that Mrs. Ashton-Warner took into account. She realized that the students, contrary to common belief, were not blank slates and that they came into the classroon with all the elements they would ever need to learn.
I truly hope to be able to bring all this knowledge into my classroom and transform it into concrete practices that would not only foment learning, but also increase the kind of interest that calls for the use of higher thinking skills necessary for an empowering education. I think that reading must provide the ability to decode the way other people see the world (their vision of knowledge) and writing must provide the ability to code the way we perceive the world (my own vision of knowledge and how I create it).
As a way of summarizing my philosophy of teaching I will finish by quoting Haim Ginnott and his Teacher’s Creed. “I have come to a frightening conclusion. I am the decisive element in the classroom. It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It is my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher, I possess tremendous power to make a student’s life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humour, hurt or heal. In all situations it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or de-escalated, and a student humanized or de-humanized.”

1. Essays about teaching and Learning

Instructional Technology and Interactive Multimedia
Marlon Marmolejo
Materials Development for Foreign Language Classrooms
Professor: Marinella Garatti

The field of materials development for foreign language teaching and learning has radically changed with the advance and influence of technology. Therefore, it is up to teachers to make use of technology wisely and to make the necessary changes to adapt it, and bring it to the classroom so students can be safely exposed to its limitless benefits.
However, as it is said “with great power comes a great responsibility” so as educators, we must be prepared to face such responsibilities. It is my goal to deal specifically with the use of interactive multimedia and the internet as great technological resources for language teaching and at the same time to show how to evaluate their effectiveness. I firmly believe that technology not only facilitates the emphasis on The Standards for Foreign Language Teaching (The 5 C’s), but also allows more room for creativity. If we use technology as a teaching tool, we must also consider technology-based assessment as well as other ways to make our regular textbooks more technologically oriented, for example, through activities that incorporate the use of computer programs and web sources like the internet. Finally, through the illustration of a simple activity, students will be able to use web-based information and exercises to enhance their textbooks technologically.
Educators more than ever are being presented with the opportunity to enhance and
improve their teaching resources with the new discoveries in the field of technological science. Recent technological developments now allow us to use instructional technology and interactive multimedia to create motivating and contextualized learning environments for students (Gardner, Wissick, Schweder, & Canter, 2003). It becomes also a priority to integrate these resources into the curriculum since “Interactive multimedia link text, sound, animation, video, and graphics present information to students in a non-linear, instantaneous fashion that promotes critical thinking and social interactions. These technologies can be integrated across the curriculum to differentiate instruction and allow students to be more actively involved in directing their learning” (Salend, 2005).
One of the most important benefits of technology is that it facilitates the emphasis on the Standards for Foreign Language Learning ( known as “The five C’s). For example, through the use of Interactive Multimedia and the World Wide Web we can emphasize “what students can do with language” rather than “what they know about the language” (Communication). Students can develop a better understanding and appreciation of other cultures and the relationship between language and culture and respect for other people’s points of view (Cultures). Teachers can also connect language instruction with other subject areas through lessons developed around limitless themes (Connections). Students can easily compare and contrast languages and cultures by discovering patterns, making predictions and analyzing similarities and differences (Comparisons). And finally, students have the opportunity to be exposed to a language that goes beyond the classroom in a multicultural community that emphasizes life in a global society (Communities).
The use of technology in the classroom doesn’t end here nor does its benefits. “We can supplement and individualize teaching by using computer-based instruction. Computers can help us individualize instruction and assessment by directing students to items related to their skill levels and allowing them to work at their own pace. Computers can also help us differentiate instruction by providing students with access to drill-and- practice, instructional games, tutorials, and problem solving”. (Salend, 2005).
This could be achieved more easily if every student from every district had access to his or her own computer, but it could take decades before this happens. However, this doesn’t mean that we cannot make the necessary adjustments to make up for its deficits. I think it is up to the teacher’s resourcefulness to figure out what to do with this kind of technology and adapt it to exploit its pedagogical benefits.
On the other hand, “the effectiveness of computer-based instruction and any other technological tool (computer language programs, websites, search engines, electronic tutorials, etc.) used in the classroom depend on the software program used. Many are open to criticism and others are not; therefore, we should carefully evaluate the ones we use”. (Baker, 2003). Forms for evaluating software programs and other web sources have been developed by K. Higgins, R. Boone, and D.L. Williams, 2000.
If you are currently using a software language program or a web-based instruction or considering using one, I would suggest you run them first through the following forms:
Computer Software Evaluation Form
COMPONENTS YES NO
Students Needs
o Communicates relevant features of a task
o Does not require teacher monitoring
o High attention level
o Provides tutorial for using the software
o Requires students to respond before moving to next task
o Manual dexterity not considered an important skill
o Simple directions

Teacher Options
o Adjustable reading level
o Allows teacher to individualized to learner needs
o Content and activities can be modified
o Content and activities can be added

COMPONENTS YES NO
Software Options and Design
o Adequate prompts
o Allows use of alternate input services
o Minimal keyboarding skills required
o Uncluttered screen
o Tasks presented in alternate formats

Screen Design
o Includes animation
o Includes color-cuing
o Underlines important points or concepts
o Nondistracting graphics
o Doubled-spaced text
o Unambiguous typeface
o On-screen directions
o Text that is not complex
o Written in active voice

Appropriate Instructional Options
o Built-in learning guidance for complex tasks
o Consistent screen design features (student can predict)
o Hints
o Includes optional game format
o Identical navigational elements on every screen
o Readability of software corresponds to identified users

Sound
o Can be disable
o Speech capabilities
o Utilizes appropriate sound
o Verbal directions have corresponding on-screen text

Feedback
o Consistent
o Provides corrective feedback
o Immediate
o Appropriate duration
o Obvious and overt
o Relevant to input/task

Instructional and Screen Design
o Errorless learning
o Input is not automatic entry
o Multiple-choice answers
o Opportunity for ample practice to reach mastery
COMPONENTS YES NO
o Provides for cumulative review
o Provides for overlearning
o Opportunities to review concepts
o Option for competition
o Provides for cumulative review
o Small instructional sets
o Software keeps score
o Software records students work
o Math problems are in vertical form
o Information presented in multiple media (print and spoken)
o Content and material can be modified
o Provision for alternative means of expression and control.

Source: From “Evaluating Educational Software for Special Education,” by K. Higgins, R. Boone, And D.L. Williams, 2000, Intervention in School and Clinic, 36, pp. 109-115.
Taken from: “Creating Inclusive Classrooms- Effective and Reflective Practices for all Students”, Spencer J. Salend, 2005.

“The internet provides teachers and students with access to an endless electronic library of lesson plans, learning activities, resources, pictorial, and databases containing information about virtually every subject and content area and in every language.” (Smith & Smith, 2002). I think that the use of this technological resource has benefited language teachers and language learners the most; it has taken language learning and instruction beyond any boundary we could have ever imagined.
“Internet connections allow teachers and students to examine and browse through electronic documents. Students can visit and access information from museums, use streaming audio and video and video technology to watch or hear live or prerecorded broadcasts of events occurring throughout the world.” (Salend, 2005).
However, with the creation and development of new technologies to solve problems, we are also creating new ones. When we bring web-based information for instruction to the classroom, we are also bringing along some potential problems that must be foreseen in order to be prevented. It is not only our responsibility as educators to prepare material to enhance our instruction, but also to make sure it is adequate and safe in terms of appropriateness.
Guidelines for Evaluating Websites and Web-based Information/Instruction

Credibility
o Who produces the information?
o Is contact information for the creator(s) available?
o Did the creator provide the sources of the information? Are the sources credible?
o Are the credentials of the creators provided?
o Is there evidence of revisions to the site?

Content
o How current and accurate is the information?
o Are the purposes and objectives for the site clearly stated?
o Does the title of the site reflect the content?
o Is the language of the site free of biases?
o Is the site readable by the students at the appropriate grade level?
o Is the information at the site properly organized?
o How relevant is the information?
o Were links provided to a variety of sites?
o Are links appropriate and helpful?
Design and Navigability
o Is the site free of errors?
o Is the site welcoming and user friendly?
o Does the site load quickly and clearly?
o Is navigation of the site logical and clear?
o Are links clearly labeled?

Accessibility for Individuals with Disabilities
o Are options available for individuals with disabilities?
o Does the site offer a text only option?
o Does the site offer link to support software designed especially for individuals with disabilities?

Source: From “Using the Internet to Improve Homework Communication and Completion,” by S. J. Salend, D. Duhaney, D. J. Anderson ands C. Gottschalk, 2004, Teaching Exceptional Children, 36 (3) pp. 64-73.
Taken from: “Creating Inclusive Classrooms - Effective and Reflective Practices for all Students”, Spencer J. Salend, 2005.

Computerized technology, as I stated before, has added particularly to the language teaching and learning dimension. However, if we use technology-based instruction, we should also be prepared to implement technology-based testing to be in fair grounds. “Advances in technology and multimedia offer alternatives to traditional paper-and-pencil tests.” (Woodfield, 2003). I think that this kind of test benefits both teacher and students. First, it evaluates the students in the same familiar context which they have been using to learn and at the same time it provides a less distracting environment by focusing their attention. “It also allows the teacher to assess students’ responses to authentic situations and give students opportunities to use and develop their critical thinking, social and metacognitive skills.” (Moore, 2003).
Secondly, “technology-based testing allows us to tailor the administration of exams to the skill levels and scheduling needs of your students.” (Thompson, Thurlow, et al., 2002). “For example, an exam administered via the computer can be structure so that the difficulty of each question depends on how the student performed on the previous one.” (Salend, 2005).
Third, technology-based assessment has its advantages and disadvantages that we should consider when using this kind of evaluation. “Students can repeat instructions, highlight text, adjust the front, print size, color, spacing and background of the test, the pace and the number of items that appear on the screen. On the other hand, it can be tiresome to read form a computer screen, difficult to identify errors. It also limits the strategies for test taking and it might place students who do not have experience with technology at an unfair disadvantage.” (Salend, 2005).
Finally, “it is important to keep in mind that technology-based assessment employs the principles of universal design to give students choices concerning test presentation and response mode formats and the testing accommodations they want to use (Thompson et al., 2002). This kind of exam has not only greatly helped teachers prepare, administer, and score tests and quizzes electronically by use of software programs, but it has also make the learning and testing conditions of thousands of children with disabilities a lot easier and fulfilling.” (Thompson, 2002).
Technology makes me also think in terms of “What to do” Vs “How Effective” it can be. In his article “Technology: A step Forward in the Teaching of Foreign Languages”, Dr. Cubillos, from the University of Delaware, states that “ the focus must not be on what to do with the new technology that is being provided but rather on how valid its introduction is into the communicative foreign language classroom today”. I have to say in this regard that I agree on the importance of the pedagogical value of technology in the foreign language classroom, but at the same time I disagree when he says that we should not focus “on what to do with technology”. Whether we like it or not, whether we are prepared to use it or not, we cannot deny the influence of technology in every single aspect of social modern times. Consequently, I think that it is up to the teacher to figure out what to do with the new technology, how to adapt it and how to bring it safely to the classroom.
Taken this into account I want to present an activity that would benefit those of us with limited technological resources or those who are currently using what they consider an outdated textbook or a straight jacket in disguise. This can be done through the use of very simple but effective technological aids.


Making a traditional textbook more computer friendly can be a simple task. Most teachers have been using the same textbook for the last 3 or 5 five years, and they have become for better or worse accustomed to it. But unfortunately, it is not one of those that is part of a multimedia package with a CD-ROM, website companion, DVD, video, CD, etc. They have also been told that it would be very costly or take a few years before the textbooks can be changed. But still they feel compelled by students and the administration to make use of technology to maximize their lesson plans effectiveness, and to motivate students.
I have developed a simple activity that makes students use web-based information and exercises to make their textbooks evolve with the class and new topics throughout the year. The following 6 steps a little of extra work will turn your traditional textbook into a more technically oriented one.
Step 1. Character assignment
Students will be asked to create a character native to the country whose language they are being taught. This character will be given a name and basic personal information that will be kept in a dossier.
Step 2. Dossier assignment
Students will be asked to keep a dossier with the character’s personal information. This dossier will be revised at the end of every quarter. Students will be also requested to present their character orally to the teacher and the class.
Step 3. Character development.
As the year progresses, the character’s persona will begin to evolve with every single topic and lesson covered in class. For example, after studying family members and relatives’ relationships, the character will be assigned one with names and how he or she is related to the others.
Step 4. Virtual information.
Students will be asked to do web-research inherent to the character’s country of origin to provide real biographical information to their character. Some assignments will be posted on line as a way to prepare students for the undergraduate and graduate demands of college. A website must be created by the teacher since students will be cutting, pasting and printing their assignments from it. This will provide a safe link for students and a way to be monitored by the teacher every time they sign in.
Step 5. Making virtual friends.
Students will be asked to create an electronic address for his character in order to communicate via e-mail with some other student’s character as if they were e-pals (Pen Pals). This will foster written communication among students without any anxiety. Some homework assignments will consist in presenting a copy of some of those e-mails. It is very important to monitor constantly to make sure students are making progress with their assignments.
Step 6. Final presentation.
At the end of the school year students will have a final presentation where they will display and explain their character biographically.
I firmly believe that this activity will exploit a regular textbook by providing it with a technological dimension that students will not only enjoy, but will learn from. This will also give teachers the chance to pilot their own material and the chance to modify textbooks to suit the students and teachers’ needs.
If you decide to run this activity through the principles of materials development stated by Tomlinson, 1998, you might find the results quite surprising.
Bringing technology to our classrooms and incorporating it into our curriculum can produce limitless benefits. However it demands more preparation and responsibility when making use of it. I think the benefits outweigh the potential dangers of misuse of technology. Dr. Cubillos has stated that “ The focus must not be on what to do with technology but rather how valid its introduction is into the communicative foreign language classroom of today.” I certainly agree on the importance of the pedagogical value of technology in the foreign language classroom, but I also think that it must be up to the educator to figure out what to do with technology and how to adapt it to teaching and learning. And that’s what I have intended to show throughout this essay.












Bibliography
Derewianca, Beverly (2003) Developing Materials for Language Teaching.
NY: Coutume. 3, 199-220.

Harper, Jane et al. (1997) The Coming of Age of the Profession “Issues and Emerging
Ideas For the teaching of Foreign Languages”.
Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
“Technology a Step Forward in the Teaching of Foreign Languages”
Jorge H. Cubillos, University of Delaware. P. 37-52.

Jensen, Erick (1998) Teaching with the Brain in Mind: “Memory and Recall”
Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD Publishers. 11, 99-112.

Salend, Spencer J. (2005) Creating Inclusive Classrooms “Effective and Reflective
Practices for All Students” Fifth Edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Publishers.

Tomlinson, Brian (1998) Materials Development in Language Teaching.
Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

The 5 C’s: Communication, Culture, Connections, Comparisons, Communities
Standards for Foreign language Learning in the 21st Century (1999)
Retrieved October 26, 2005
From http://www.fll.pdx.edu/htlm

Wolfe, Patricia (2001) Brain Matters: “Using visual and Auditory Senses”
Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD Publishers. 9, 151-169.

VI. Essays about teaching and Learning

Life-Skills Intelligence: Street-Smarts

Marlon Marmolejo


Materials Development for the Foreign Languages

Course 36593

Professor Marinella Garatti

Fall 2005

Abstract

Dr. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence identifies that there are many forms of intelligence and that people have varying strengths and combinations of these (Armstrong, 2000). Therefore, the Multiple Intelligence Theory suggests that no single set of teaching strategies will work best for all students at all times. All children have different predispositions in the nine intelligences, so any specific strategy to address a particular type of intelligence is very likely to be successful with several students but not with others. Consequently, it is very important to continue identifying other types of intelligence to create strategies to reach every single learner in the classroom. I’d like to propose a further study of “The People-Smart Person” that Dr.Gardner makes reference to through the Interpersonal Intelligence and that I will refer to as “The Street-Smart Person” within “The Life-Skills Intelligence”. I would also like to suggest that further research should be done so that The Life- Skills Intelligence might eventually become an intelligence by its own. I want to point out that “The Street-Smarts” have the ability of not only “reading people”, but also the ability to “read the environment” which is not taken into account in the “Interpersonal Intelligence”. The street-smart people possess a different set of characteristics that I will try to illustrate and, that I hope, will help researchers see why the street-smart should be treated as its own category.
Howard Gardner’s (1999) theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) views intelligence as a set of abilities, talents and skills in nine different areas: mathematical-logical, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, verbal-linguistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. All human beings possess these intelligences in varying degrees and apply them depending on their preferences, activities and environment (Mantzaris, 1999). Most people can develop all of them to a degree of competence. Preferences, activities and environment take an important role in the development of life skills which often street-smart people learn to master and use for their own survival.
Life skills Intelligence: Street-Smarts
What does it mean to be street smart? Do you know your way around? Can you handle yourself in tough situations? Are you able to “read” people? Do you think in terms of usefulness and necessity rather than how it is done? Do you make decisions based on your instincts rather than analyzing all the pieces of information? Do you value experiences more than know-how-to? Are you known for having a great deal of common sense? Do you take into account your position in relationship with others and your surroundings before solving problems? Well, it means all these things because they will help you solve problems, keep you safe and survive.
Street-smarts is probably composed more of attitudes than skills per se. A student who might be considered to have street smarts will think about the broader implication of a particular topic or activity rather than its specific outcome (Harvard Business School 2001). For example, a street smart student evaluating the usefulness of a task would be asking how in real life he or she is going to benefit from the task rather than how to proceed to complete the task. From their perspective the broader implications and benefits of topics and activities are more relevant than the fact that he or she has to do A or B to succeed. “Similarly, a student with a gifted overdeveloped life-skills intelligence is willing to make a difficult decision based on gut instinct. A not-so-street-smart student tends to ask for far more information than what can be feasibly gathered within a set of time and resource constraints.” ( Harvard Business School 2001).
Is Street-smarts something we are born with or is it learned through experience? I think it is a little of both or let’s say a 40-60 kind of relation. It seems that for some humans it is an innate quality which is considered as having a great deal of “common sense” and for others it seems to increase rapidly just by being exposed to different situations which are considered as “experiences.”
I imagine the endless benefits of reaching the life-skills or street-smart learners to incorporate their abilities with the not-so-street-smart learners in the classroom and vice versa. It would be like having the best of both worlds.
I think that street-smart people can be taught by using working-in-the-real-world activities, something that is definitely neglected in textbooks and school activities. I think it’s time we put aside any negative connotation that the expression street-smart might have and exploit it to achieve better results in class instruction. I hope the by calling it life-skills, we can start thinking about it in more positive terms.
Would it fit the profile?
We learn, we communicate, and we solve problems in different ways using our intelligence. However let’s not forget that intelligence is the ability to identify a problem, then solve it or make something that is useful for oneself or other people. Intelligence is also, according to Dr. Gardner, the ability to find and solve problems and create products of value in one’s culture. Can we solve problems using the Life-Skills Intelligence? The answer is “YES.”
Dr. Gardner has developed the following eight criteria method for identifying an intelligence (http://surfaquarium.com/MI/criteria.thm):

1. Isolation as a brain function: As medicine studies isolated brain functions through cases of brain injury and degenerative disease, we are able to identify actual physiological locations for specific brain functions. A true intelligence will have its function identified in a specific location.
2. Prodigies, Savants and Exceptional individuals: Human records of geniuses such as Mozart (being able to perform on the piano at the age of four), Dustin Hoffman’s “Rainman” character (being able to calculate dates accurately down to the day of the week), and children diagnosed with William’s syndrome (known as the cocktail party personality children for their social skills), who can memorize songs in more than thirty languages. These cases indicate that there are specific human abilities which can demonstrate themselves to high degrees in unique cases.

3. Set of Core Operations: There is an identifiable set of procedures and practices, which are unique to each true intelligence.

4. Developmental History with an Expert End Performance: As clinical psychologists continue to study the developmental stages of human growth and learning, a clear pattern of developmental history is being documented of the human mind. A true intelligence has an identifiable set of stages of growth with a Mastery Level, which exists, as an end state in human development. We can see examples of people who have reached the Mastery Level for each intelligence.

5. Evolutionary History: As cultural anthropologists continue to study the history of human evolution, there is adequate evidence that our species has developed intelligence overtime through human experience. A true intelligence can have its development traced through the evolution of Homo sapiens.

6. Supported Psychological Tasks: Clinical psychologists can identify sets of tasks for different domains of human behavior. A true intelligence can be identified by specific tasks, which can be carried out, observed and measured.

7. Supported Psychometric tasks: The use of psychometric instruments to measure intelligence (such as I.Q. test) has traditionally been used to measure only specific types of ability. However, these tests can be designed and used to identify and quantify true unique intelligences. The Multiple Intelligence theory does not reject psychometric testing for specific scientific study.

8. Encoded Symbol System: Humans have developed many kinds of symbol systems over time for varied discipline. A true intelligence has its own set of images it uses which are unique to itself and are important in completing its identified set of tasks.

Based on the eight criteria mentioned above suggested by Dr. Gardner, and on the fact that the life-skills intelligence shares some of the characteristics of the interpersonal intelligence, a proven intelligence already, I think the life-skills intelligence ought to be further investigated as a potential category. Of course, this further study and research must be done before we can find more evidence to support the brain function, the developmental history and the psychometric tasks criteria, which are crucial aspects of Dr. Gardner’s theory to prove the existence of an intelligence.
We should also remember that everyone has all intelligences, the intelligences are not mutually exclusive (they act in consort) and that MI theory was not developed to exclude individuals, but to allow all people to contribute to society through their own strengths (Walter Mckenzie, 2003). Therefore, street smart people contributions ought to be part of our society.
Characteristics and Behavior of Street-Smarts People
Seems to be a natural leader on teams.
Has a better understanding of what is happening in his/her surroundings.
Seems to act on instincts, but wisely.
Can make decisions more easily based on instinct.
Displays a sense of independence and strong will.
Can see problems from different points of view.
Has a realistic sense of life.
Knows what to do and how to react by looking at non-verbal cues.
Likes to play with friends, but playing alone doesn’t bother him.
Prefers to play games with a purpose or reward.
Has a tendency to be more knowledgeable than his/her peers about the facts of life.
Enjoys listening and observing other people.
Likes to tell stories related to his experiences.
Wants to know the practical meaning of things.
Finds his/her way around very easily.
Has great understanding of the monetary value of things.
Makes friends easily.
Can talk his/her way out of trouble.
Can learn just by careful observation.
Knows how to play politics to manipulate others.
How to identify The Life Skills Intelligence learner: Street Smart:
How street-smart am I?
This can easily be done by answering the following statements honestly by checking the score from 1 to 5. Considering 5 if you strongly agree with the statement.
Strongly disagree Neutral Agree
I make friends easily 1 2 3 4 5
I know something is wrong just by looking around 1 2 3 4 5
I can guess the price of items easily 1 2 3 4 5
I can figure out how to use appliances without reading the manual 1 2 3 4 5
I have enough common sense not to put myself or others in danger 1 2 3 4 5
I can make decisions easily on the spot 1 2 3 4 5
I prefer to know why rather than how 1 2 3 4 5
I don’t daydream, I am too realistic for that 1 2 3 4 5
I am not afraid to get lost 1 2 3 4 5
I am smart enough not to let anybody take advantage of me 1 2 3 4 5

This is a test designed based on the most prominent characteristics of the Street-smarts to

find out how far you have developed your Life skills intelligence. The test still needs to go
through a process of validation by applying it to find its effectiveness and make the appropriate
adjustments to improve it, if is necessary.

Curriculum References to M.I. and the Street Smart
Education must be perceived as a continuing process in life that is useful to solve problems creatively and plan effectively for the immediate and long future – something the street-smart learner has constantly in mind. Students should be taught how to take advantage of the many learning methods and strategies, both old and new, to develop transferable skills. The curriculum should emphasize leaning experiences and approaches to learning that develop and foster these skills and habits of mind. I think it’s time for a new curriculum that is designed for all students; that is, it should recognize that programs must reflect the abilities, needs, interests, learning styles of students of both genders and students of all racial, linguistic, and social backgrounds. It should also provide diverse content and use of a wide range of teaching approaches and, to an increased degree, find a way to involve teachers in students’ lives outside the classroom.
Let’s talk about Steven, a teacher a few years ago. During his teaching years, he had a student, Sam. What Steven remembers the most is how mature and knowledgeable about the facts of life Sam was. Sam’s mother let Steven know that Sam was making bombs in the basement of his house. Steven talked to Sam who confessed he had learned how to make bombs by hanging out with other kids from the neighborhood and that he had done some research on the net to learn more about it.
Steven’s main concern was to channel this knowledge constructively which he achieve by convincing Sam that he had a gift and that this could lead into a job with police or the FBI as a bomb squad specialist. It is very important to clarify that Sam was a middle-high class, since we have the tendency to think that only low or poor income status kids can be considered street smart. Another example is the famous check forger and impersonator, Frank Abagnale, from the seventies who stole millions and ended up working for famous banks designing security traits for checks and for the FBI (Frank Abagnale is portrayed by Leonardo Dicaprio in the movie “Catch Me if You Can.” The example illustrated before, might be considered not the most appropriate due to new laws and changes in school policies, but I wanted to show the impact of the Life-Skills intelligence in this particular student.
As I said before, some people seem to have it as an innate ability and others might acquire or improve it through life experiences.
Finally, it is essential that the curriculum responds to students’ varying strengths and abilities, as well as changing needs and circumstances. Teachers’ assessments of students progress will indicate the kind of adjustments that will be needed to meet the particular needs of individual or groups as they work toward achieving common outcomes.

How to Meet Street-Smart Needs
“ A child growing up in the slums or in household with no literacy or books could be very street-smart, yet not have the school learning required for the traditional measurement of IQ,” says Das, (Professor Emeritus in educational psychology at the university of Alberta) (http://www.news-medical.net/ualberta.ca/). Das identifies four “rules of intelligence” that go into formation processing. These rules include a belief that intelligence is not fixed, but it is influenced by such factors as learning and cultural demands, a key factor in the street-smart, cognitive abilities, even school attendance, as well as individual ability to process information such as language and face recognition. The rules guide the research on PASS theory, developed by Das and two colleagues in1994. PASS (an acronym for Planning, Attention, Simultaneously and Successive Processing) has shown that intelligence should not be measured by school learning and IQ testing, but by information processing that occurs during the learning. “What goes into intellectual abilities and how a person solves problems is more important than a score itself,” says Das.
Based on the previous analysis by Dr. Das, I would like to suggest a set of teaching strategies for the Life Skills Intelligence.
Strategies
Some students need to know how ideas and activities would be useful when dealing with the real world if they are to function optimally in the classroom. Street-smart people can definitely benefit from cooperative learning. However, since every student has already street-smart intelligence waiting to be developed, every educator should be aware of the teaching approaches that incorporate interaction among people and social context, two of the main components of the five C’s of the standard for foreign language teaching (Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons and Communities) that we have discussed in class. All language classes can benefit a great deal from having street-smarts activities and strategies. The following strategies can tap these students’ needs and prompt them to be developed in others.

Simulations.
A simulation involves two or more people coming together to create an “as if” environment. This temporary setting becomes the context for getting into more immediate contact with the material learned and its use in real life. For example, students studying housing might pretend they’re buying one. The not-so street-smart students will probably ask the most obvious and pertinent questions related to the construction and accommodations, while the street-smart would want to know how safe the neighborhood is, how often there are flooding problems in the area and perhaps if there are any frequent power shortages in the neighborhood. This student would very likely draw information from his own experience to complete the task.
Simulations can be quick and improvisational in nature, with the teacher providing an instant scenario to act out: Let’s pretend there is an earthquake and we are on the fourth floor in the building. Try to figure out how to keep everybody calm and take them to a safe place. The street-smart person will probably take leadership, use his common sense or gut instinct and make quick decisions that will ensure the safety of all his peers. Although this strategy involves several intelligences ( kinesthetic, linguistic and spatial), it is included in the life skills intelligence because human reactions in emergencies, can help develop survival skills that are necessary throughout life.
Entertainment shows (talk shows, radio shows, TV shows, court trials and sports)
Whether we like it, or not, television is part of the daily life of our children. They learn the facts of life through well and not-so-well oriented TV shows. This presents a great opportunity to discuss different topics or lessons that students might not want to deal with. For example, creating a panel of hosts to discuss the priorities in helping hurricane victims gives the chance to the street-smart people to bring up subjects other kids might have never considered. Or what about a radio show where you call asking for advice how to deal with school issues like bullies, gangs, lack of interest, peer pressure or maybe depression.
Teaching languages gives any teacher the advantage of dealing with almost any topic. It provides the perfect excuse to teachers to bring up subjects about life and social behavior without being politically incorrect, because the subject matter is neutral.

The price is right/Reward games.
Street-smart students seem to have a great sense of money value and the difficulty that it might represent to get what we want. They are also aware of the work that it takes to achieve certain goals. This can be taught by using board games like “Monopoly”, “Bingo” or “The Guardian” which is an innovative safety board game that teaches safety skills to succeed in a family or community setting using an entertaining and motivation format. This game is available at (http://www.safetygame.com). It is amazing how fast kids learn to add and subtract when numbers are associated with any kind of currency.
School projects: The Apprentice.
Why not take advantage of the street-smart learner’s leadership to carry out a simple mission by being in charge of a small group of people in search of a common goal in the most unusual scenarios. For example, ask them to come up with a list of possible solutions to a set of problems if they were dropped in an unknown city in a foreign country just with their return tickets, a very small amount of money, and with twelve hours to make it to the airport in a nearby city. They will have to figure out how to take a shower, eat cheaply, find medicine for a sick person in the group, etc, etc.
Students can be also given hypothetical situations for which they will have to come up with a list of solutions to get their own character out of trouble. They might also want to work on class public service announcement that they can video tape to teach their peers about particular dangerous situations and how to face them. For example, how to avoid being mugged or picked-pocketed in the subway in Manhattan by giving tips such as keeping the wallet in the front pocket, avoiding empty cars or having good body posture to display confidence through body language. Many thieves when asked how they pick their victims, they say that they could see if a potential victim was carrying something valuable by the way they held their bags and if they were fearful or insecure through their body language: “ Behave like a victim and you’ll become one.”
Literary Sociograms
A sociogram is a web that visually illustrates the relationships within a group of people. One can take a story and make a sociogram from it. As well, one can visually illustrate a ladder where one looks at the move and countermove of a pair of characters. One can start to attribute cause and effect; this character did this because that character did that. Social knowledge can be deepened and this can be a complement to social skills programs or for outlining the real cause of a fight.
Reading material
Students are always willing to read anything if they know that they will learn something useful and that they can figure out how to put it into practice as soon as possible like numbers to have a sense of quantity in ownership. Street-smarts students are no exception to the rule. They would benefit from reading “Fables” to discuss the morale of the story or from “how-to books” especially those that teach how to fix things like cars or appliances.


Multiple Intelligences and career development
Because the MI theory was formed in part by examining what people do in the world – in the performance of jobs and tasks (Checkly, 1997) MI profiling and learning activities should be useful in career choice and career development. A profile of an individual’s strengths and weaknesses in the intelligences can be developed using a tool such as the multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scale (MIDAS) created by Sheater (1997, 1999).
I think that teachers in conjunction with the use of MI theory can assist the career development and counseling process of children in a number of ways. 1) The theory of Multiple Intelligences can help develop Self-knowledge: Knowing strengths and weaknesses through MIDAS (which will have to be adapted to our purposes) to have a sense of skills and abilities.
2) The MI Theory can also expand career possibilities: Mantzaris (1999) found that being involved in MI activities broadened their parameters of their career choices, instead of focusing on the “right fit”; and Enhancement of self-esteem: At-risk students and adults who may have not experienced career success have benefited from recognizing that they are intelligent and that they can find jobs that match their strengths (Shearer 199& King1997).
“The lack of street-smarts in the professional world is real since too much emphasis is placed on achieving good scores based on traditional assessment to assume being worthy of getting the job” ( Harvard Business School 2001). I hope some day we learn to value street-smart intelligence to assess the worthiness and qualities to be considered as a candidate for a job.
Some of the career options for those who have developed their street-smart intelligence more than the others should consider jobs such as politicians, correctional officers, policemen, anti- crime specialists, disaster prevention specialists, first responders, emergency medical technicians, soldiers, brokers, salespersons, entrepreneurs, priests/ministers/rabbis, tour guides, manage, anthropologists, ecologists and any profession needing quick instinct decision making.
Textbooks
Unfortunately, some language textbooks are still too structured and based on the all traditional concepts of learning and teaching. It wasn’t until recently and thanks to the MI theory (Gardner, 2000) that new strategies are being used to design language textbooks that take into account the different learning styles. Since I am proposing the consideration of a new intelligence with a particular set of learning strategies, it will take a while before we can begin to see activities and exercises which will target it. I think is time to begin to teach about the facts of life and all the skills that are necessary to succeed, not only at a professional level, but also at personal one. This implies taking knowledge that is useful for survival outside the classrooms when dealing with and, most importantly, when not dealing with “the so-called professional world.”
I hope we not only implement these changes in the language textbooks, but also in any textbook with any teaching purposes.
Conclusion
The postulation of a learning theory is not a simple task since it requires extensive research and diversified scientific methods to support the findings and speculations presented. Dr. Gardner (1999) has succeeded with his MI theory through his scientific method to prove the existence of an “intelligence type”. I have proposed the Life-Skills Intelligence or Street-Smart intelligence to be tested with this scientific method and at the same time suggested a possible relationship with his Interpersonal intelligence. Unfortunately, some of these criteria require very advanced technology and time investment to support the Street-Smart Intelligence in terms such as, isolation as a brain function, the developmental history and the supported psychometric tasks.
Therefore, I have to reiterate that the main purpose of this paper is to highlight arguments for another learning style that I wish would eventually be submitted to further investigation and scrutiny. Street-smart people possess a set of characteristics and behaviors that are worth analyzing to transfer them into teaching strategies to benefit not only this particular kind of learner, but also all other learners. It is also important to include these strategies into the curriculum design to ensure a more wholesome one.
Due to the extent of the research and time limitations, there are numerous questions that need to be addressed, for example: Are men more likely to be more street-smart than women or are women equally prone to develop street-smarts? Are certain ethnicities more equipped with life-skills than others? Are street-smarts people determined or influenced by social status? Or are we born street-smart or is this trait acquired through experience?
Finally, we must take advantage of the great opportunity that presents itself through this kind of intelligence to teach and talk about life skills in our classrooms. Especially for the language teacher who can bring almost any topic into classroom settings and still be politically correct. One thing is for sure and it is that Street-Smart Intelligence (for Americans), “Malicia Indigena” (“native malice instinct” in Spanish) or “Savoir-Faire (“know how to” in French) and many other similar expressions in different languages, demonstrate the cross-cultural implications and existence of this intelligence. Remember: “It’s not how smart you are- It’s how you are smart!” Gardner (Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 1999).








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Welcome to California (2005) “Street Smart Kids.” Retrieved October 12, 2005
From
From

V. Samples of Instructional Materials

Click on the links below to see the PowerPoint Presentations of the instructional materials.

Part I

http://galileo.dcboces.org/icampus/file.php/1/Catherine_Site_Files/Universal_Language_lost_in_translation.ppt

Part II



http://galileo.dcboces.org/icampus/file.php/1/Catherine_Site_Files/Learning_Disabilities_POWER_POINT.ppt
http://galileo.dcboces.org/icampus/file.php/1/Catherine_Site_Files/POWER_POINT_P.TECNOLOGY.ppt
http://galileo.dcboces.org/icampus/file.php/1/Catherine_Site_Files/Universal_Language_lost_in_translation.ppt
http://galileo.dcboces.org/icampus/file.php/1/Catherine_Site_Files/calendario.ppt
https://npmail.newpaltz.edu/Redirect/galileo.dcboces.org/icampus/file.php/1/Catherine_Site_Files/webacc.ppt

IV. Annotated Bibliography of Web Sources

After exploring many web sites and attending a few workshops in teaching foreign languages, I have collected a useful list of web sites that have proven to be useful in the classroom settting. I encourage to look up them, explore and exploit them for the benefits of your students. These sites are also students and parents' friendly.

For Spanish:

Tongue twisters

www.uebersetzung.at/twister/la.html

For French:

www.uebersetzung.at/twister/la.html

Current Events, Sports, Movie Reviews, Horoscopes and much More:

www.thepaperboy.com International newspapers
www.stolaf.edu/network/iecc Campus newspapers from schools abroad
www.cnn.com Choose languages
www.tv5.com French news, culture, sites for youth

Fun sites for students:

www.momes.net Readings in Frech
www.universound.ca Popular music lyrics
www.kidlink.org Students' writings from around teh world
www.leemeuncuento.com.ar/fabulas.html Spanish fables and short stories

Jokes (should be review by teachers first):

www.chistes.com Jokes in Spanish
www.phortail.org/blagues Jokes in French
www.comics.com Verbal and non-verbal Fl comics
www.Englishtowm.com ESl courses, games, lesson plans

Quotations:

www.citationdumonde.com French
www.espanole.org/refranes Spanish

Some great websites for teachers:

www.google.com Instant information and images
www.cortland.edu/flteach International FL teacher listserve
www.enchantedlearning.com Ready to print flashcards
www.Francemonthly.com Cultural readings and recipes
www.education-world.com Database of over 56,000 sites
www.grammarlady.com Grammar review
www.newteacher.com Lesson plans
www.teachers.net Teacher forum of diverse issues

Vocabulary:

www.languageguide.org/espanol/index.jsp
www.pdictionary.com
www.quia.com
www.members.tripod.com/spanidhflascards

Images:

www.borrico.com/draw.html
www.google.com

Fables:

www.pacificnet?
www.la-fontaine-ch-thierry.net/accjeux.html
www.lescale.net/petits

1. Lesson Plan for The Unit on The House on Mango Street

Marlon Marmolejo
Course: 36576 TESOL 2
Professor: Judith Rance-Roney.

LESSON PLAN
Teacher’s Name: Marlon Marmolejo
Day and Date: Friday, May 5th, 2006
Unit Plan Title: The House on Mango Street
Place in Unit Sequence: Class number 5 (Chapters 17, 18, 19, and 20)

Class description:

Grade: 9
Proficiency level: Low-mid intermediate.
Setting: Junior high school class of 12 students from different cultural backgrounds (3 Hispanic students, 3 Koreans, 2 Indians, 2 Polish, 1 Persian and 1 Russian student). The school is located in Washington Heights in Manhattan, NY.


1. Concept/Topics to teach:
I will be teaching to read, discuss and analyze American literature that represents diversity and cultural awareness (gender and ethnicity). I will integrate math and social studies to build some life skills and to identify some universal themes and truths.

Learning Standards address:

1. ESL/ELA Standards.
· Standard 1: Students will listen, speak, read and write in English for information and understanding. L (listening), S (speaking), R (reading), W (writing).
· Standard 2: Students will listen, speak, read, and write in English for literary response, enjoyment, and expression.
· Standard 4: Students will listen, speak, read, and write in English for classroom and social interaction.
· Standard 5: Students will demonstrate cross-cultural knowledge and understanding.

Content Standards.

Math:
Standard 3: Students will understand mathematics and become mathematically confident by communicating and reasoning mathematically, by applying mathematics in real-world settings, and by solving problems through the integrated study of number systems, geometry, algebra, data analysis, probability, and trigonometry (only those that apply).


Social Studies.
Standard 3: Students will be able to use a variety of intellectual skills to demonstrate
understanding of the geography of the interdependent world in which we live –local,
national, and global-- including the distribution of people, places, and environments over
the earth’s surface. This is explained in two key ideas.
Key Idea 1: Geography can be divided into six essential elements, which can be used to analyze important historic, geographic, economic, and environmental questions and issues. These six elements include: the world in spatial terms, places and regions, physical settings (including natural resources), human systems, environment and society, and the use of geography.
Key Idea 2: Geography requires the development and application of the skills of asking and answering geographic questions; analyzing theories of geography; and acquiring, organizing, and analyzing geographic information.

2. Goals:
Language goals.

Students will be able to:
- Give and ask for advice using “SHOULD”
- Talk about habits using the expression “USED TO”
- Describe some pieces of clothing using adjectives.

Knowledge/Content goals.

Students will learn how to:
- Read and speak critically about literature.
- Engage in discussion as speaker and listener to interpret, analyze, and summarize ideas.
- Apply mathematical knowledge (percentage) to calculate and estimate accurate prices.
- Discuss options of clothing based on geographical location.

Developmental goals:
Students will:
- Scan the text to find characters’ names and specific places by underlying them.
- Highlight their favorite line in the text to discuss with the class.
- Use graphic organizers for better understanding.

3. Materials and equipment needed:
- Graphic organizer
- Chapter handouts
- Word wall
- Dictionaries
- Class Agenda


LANGUAGE INPUT:
Chapter 17. The family of little feet.
New words
- Doughy: uncooked bread-like texture
- Tamales: wrapped ethnic South American food
- Velvety: soft and fuzzy texture
- Wobble: to move back and forth in shaky way
- Plump: chubby
- Linoleum: plastic floor material bought in rolls
- Hopscotch: children’s game on a numbered square box drawn on the floor
- Scabs: surface of a healing wound
- Strut: to walk in a show off style
- tee-tottering: to move back and forth without equilibrium

Chapter 18. A rice sandwich.
New words
- Canteen: a) eating place at school, b) metal water container
- Holler: to scold, to shout
- Anemic: pale condition due to lack of red cells; weak
- There’d (contraction): there would
- Raggedy: torn up clothes, tattered
- Nod: vertical head movement meaning agreement

Chapter 19. Chanclas.
New words
- Slip: women’s underwear
- Striped: parallel design clothes pattern
- Tilt: incline
- Scuffed: a) worn down shoes, b) to drag.
- Wad: a small thick pile of something (money, mud, mucus, etc.)
- plungers: suction cup tool made out of rubber
- Bow: a) to bend at the waist [bau], b) a ribbon [bow], arc used to propel an arrow [bow].

Chapter 20. Hips.
New words
- Bloom: produce or yield flowers (Example: "The cherry tree bloomed").
- You gotta be(non-standard English): you HAVE TO BE.
- Double-dutch rope: two ropes going in opposite directions when playing rope jumping.
- Hoochi-coochie: to wiggle the upper body at the chest.
- Wiggle: to move or go with short, quick, irregular movements from side to side: The puppies wiggled with delight.
- Naphtha: colorless.


New Structures

SHOULD: You should… Should I …?

USED TO: I used to… Did you use to…?

ADJECTIVE ORDER: General / Size / Age / Color / Nationality + Noun
You have a beautiful small old green Italian house.


INSTRUCTIONAL AGENDA AND PROCEDURES

I. Preparing the Lesson

· Classroom Management Tasks.
To foster responsibility and independence learning, students have been given the task of checking their own attendance by signing their initial on the roster that is always posted on the right side of the board, next to the class objectives for the day.
Students are also expected to turn in their assignments to the student in charged that corresponding week. Students were supposed to write from two to three paragraphs on their interactive journal about a happy and sad memory from their childhood.
· DO NOW Procedures.
After checking their attendance on the roster and turning in their assignments, students are expected to get a handout sheet form the right side of the desk (the usual place), and go their seats to start working on them individually. Meantime, the teacher will be writing the class objectives on the right side of the board.
(4 minutes)
· Communicating the Agenda.
The teacher will distribute a copy of the class activities for the day and go over it with the students.
“Today will continue with the discussion of The House on Mango Street. We’ll be working on chapters 17 (The family of little feet), 18 (A rice sandwich), 19 (Chanclas), and 20 (Hips).
First, we will discuss and answer any questions pertaining to the assignment from yesterday.
Second, we’ll discuss the questions from the handout that you were working on at the beginning of the class.
Third, we’ll work on a prediction chart before reading the chapters.
Four, we will work on the new vocabulary of the chapters.
Fifth, we’ll proceed with the reading modeled by the teacher and then followed by voluntary reading.
Six, group work. The class will be divided in groups of 3 to work on a different chapter (handout) from the book.
Seven, we’ll do a sharing of information to discuss the results among the groups.
Eight, students we’ll decide on their following project and start working on it. Outline development strategies will be discussed. (This will serve as preparation for the essay part of the Regents Exams).
Finally, homework will be discussed and assigned. (Students have a chance to choose or decline daily homework assignments). This is done usually by asking students to write a paragraph arguing why homework shouldn’t be assigned that particular day. Somebody always volunteer to read their reasoning. Although, this does not guarantee, necessarily, the elimination of the assignment.
(5 minutes)

II. Setting the Context for the Lesson.

· Tying the new with the old.
“Can anybody remember our discussion about family planning and financial literacy from yesterday? Great. By the way you really mastered those life skills when we were playing the board game “Life.” I can see you are going to be amazing parents. Well, today we will continue our discussion about the character’s experiences and at the same time learn how to ask for and give advice; talk about old and new habits; and some specific forms to describe clothing.

· Building Schema and Prior Background Knowledge.
Students will need to know the vocabulary listed on this lesson plan at the beginning. They will also need to remember how to work with graphic organizers and how to use the dictionary. We’ll discuss habits and costumes from the students’ native countries to talk about old habits. In addition, we’ll be asking for and giving advice related to their life events.

· Terms and Vocabulary.
Students will need to master:
- The vocabulary listed on the list of the chapters.
- “SHOULD”
- “USED TO”
- Some adjectives and word order.
- Graphic organizer.

III. TEACHING PROCEDURES

Do Now procedure

Students are expected to arrive to class on time and sign with their initials the attendance sheet that is always posted on the right side of the board next to the objectives. They will also take a handout from the teacher’s right side of the desk and start working on the assignment immediately. At the same time, the teacher will be writing the class objectives on the board.

Class objectives

Content objectives:

- Read and speak critically about literature.
- Engage in discussion as speaker and listener to interpret, analyze, and summarize ideas.
- Apply mathematical knowledge (percentage) to calculate and estimate accurate prices.
- Discuss options of clothing based on geographical location.

Language objectives:

Students will be able to:
- Give and ask for advice using “SHOULD”
- Talk about habits using the expression “USED TO”
- Describe some pieces of clothing using adjectives.
(5 Minutes)

2. Class activities for the day: reading of the agenda

The teacher will distribute a copy of the class activities for the day and go over it with the students.
“Today will continue with the discussion of The House on Mango Street. We’ll be working on chapters 17 (The family of little feet), 18 (A rice sandwich), 19 (Chanclas), and 20 (Hips).
First, we will discuss and answer any questions pertaining to the assignment from yesterday.
Second, we’ll discuss the questions from the handout that you were working on at the beginning of the class.
Third, we’ll work on a prediction chart before reading the chapters.
Four, we will work on the new vocabulary of the chapters.
Fifth, we’ll proceed with the reading modeled by the teacher and then followed by voluntary reading.
Six, we’ll do some group work. The class will be divided in groups of 3 to work on a different chapter (handout) from the book.
Seven, we’ll do a sharing of information to discuss the results among the groups.
Eight, homework will be discussed and assigned. (Students have a chance to choose or decline daily homework assignments). This is done usually by asking students to write a paragraph arguing why homework shouldn’t be assigned that particular day. Somebody always volunteer to read their reasoning. Although, this does not guarantee, necessarily, the elimination of the assignment.
Finally, students will decide on their following project and start working on it. Outline development strategies will be discussed. (This will serve as preparation for the essay part of the Regents Exams). This is the actual assignment.

(5 minutes)
3. Homework revision

Two or three students will be asked to volunteer to read their interactive journal response from the previous class. Students were supposed to write about 2 or three paragraphs comparing the habits or routines before coming to the live in United States. All the journals will be collected, commented upon, and returned the next day.
(5 minutes)


4. First handout discussion.

Students will have the chance to elaborate and discuss the DO NOW handout that they were working on until now. The questions that they were supposed to think and write about were:
- How do you feel when somebody misunderstands or misinterpret what you were saying or doing? Can you share an experience?
- How do you think the main character, Esperanza, has changed since the beginning of the novel?
- What do you think is the most important lesson Esperanza has learned so far?

(7 minutes)
5. Prediction Chart

Students will be given a second handout (graphic organizer) to make predictions based on the titles of the next coming chapters.
(5 minutes)

6. New vocabulary handout

Students will quickly scan the chapter to look for new words. They will add these words to their list and encourage to find the meaning before teacher intervention. Finally the whole class will go over the words to practice pronunciation. This will also provide the class a chance to work on incidental vocabulary teaching.
(8 minutes)

7. Actual reading

The teacher will read the first chapter to encourage students’ participation. Then, students will be asked to volunteer to continue reading.
(18 minutes)

8. Group work

After the reading, students will get together in four groups of three students to work on a third handout. They are usually free to form their own groups unless we have a special accommodation. Today, I will ask Pablo and Alexandra to work with Katia since she has been in the class just for a few days and this is her first book reading with the class. They seem to get along pretty well which will help Katia get familiar with the class dynamics.
Each group will be work on a different chapter to become experts, and then share the information with the rest of their classmates. Each group member will be assigned a letter from “A” to “C.” Later on they will be reorganized in three groups of four, which will put an expert on a different chapter in the same group. This division is as follows:



First organization

A B C: Chapter 17
A B C: Chapter 18
A B C: Chapter 19
A B C: Chapter 20

Reorganization for knowledge sharing

A/17+A/18+A/19+A/20 = Group 1
B/17+B/18+B/19+B/20 = Group 2
C/17+C/18+C/19+C/20 = Group 3

The teacher will be walking around the classroom to monitor and further assist the students. This will ensure class work and keep the pace of the activity. He will also provide guidance to fill out the group work rubric.
(17 minutes)

9. Final prediction chart revision.

Students will have the chance to compare and revise their predictions.

(5 minutes)

10. Homework and closure.

Finally, homework will be discussed and assigned. (Students have a chance to choose or decline daily homework assignments). This is done usually by asking students to write a paragraph arguing why homework shouldn’t be assigned that particular day. Somebody always volunteer to read their reasoning. Although, this does not guarantee, the elimination of the assignment, necessarily.

Students we’ll decide on their following project and start working on it. They will develop an outline to present in class. (This will serve as preparation for the essay part of the Regents Exams).
(5 minutes)


IV. Adaptation for special needs

Katia will be sitting next to Pablo and Alexandra for immediate assistance, because Katia has been in the class for just a few days and this is her first book reading with the class. They seem to get along pretty well which will help Katia get familiar with the class dynamics.
I will be getting the Russian dictionary today that I requested a few days ago. Students will also have access to multilingual and monolingual dictionaries in the classroom.
Katia was given the vocabulary and the class agenda previously to help her prepare for class today.

V. Home assignment.

Students we’ll decide on their following project and start working on it. They will develop an outline to present in class. (This will serve as preparation for the essay part of the Regents Exams


The House on Mango Street

Journal Guide for Chapter 17
“The Family of Little Feet”


Questions

Answer the following questions in complete sentences.

1. What happens to Esperanza when she and her friends are given some second-hand high heel shoes?

2. Why does the man say the shoes are dangerous?

3. How do the shoes change the girls?

4. How do the men in the neighborhood behave when they see the girls in those shoes?



Themes

1. In this chapter, the girls learn quite a bit about the way women are perceived. What are the perceptions of women that they face?




Style

Cisneros has a poetic style. She incorporates both vivid imagery and spare prose. She uses both to create a picture of the narrator’s world.

1. The girls refer to themselves as Cinderella and Christmas. What does this type of imagery show about them?

2. What lines in this chapter create the sense of impending violence and potential violation that the narrator feels?



Personal Response

Are people judged by the clothing they wear? Should they be? Is there a double standard for women and their behavior?
The House on Mango Street
Journal Guide for Chapter 18
“A Rice Sandwich”


Questions

Answer the following questions in complete sentences.

1. Why does Esperanza want to eat in the canteen?

2. How does Esperanza convince her mother to allow her to eat in the canteen?

3. Why did Esperanza say that the house was hers when it wasn’t?

4. What did Esperanza experience in the canteen?


Themes

1. Once again Esperanza endures a humiliating experience. How is the experience with the nun in this chapter similar to the experience in chapter one? Why does Esperanza lie about her home?

2. What did she learn from this experience?


Style

Cisneros has a poetic style. She incorporates both vivid imagery and spare prose. She uses both to create a picture of the narrator’s world.

1. What words does the narrator use to describe her reaction to the nun’s questioning? What does this show about Esperanza?

2. Why is this chapter titled “The Rice Sandwich?” Would another title be more appropriate?



Personal Response

How are the adults portrayed in this novel? How did you see adults when you were a child?



The House on Mango Street

Journal Guide for Chapter 19
“Chanclas”

Questions

Answer the following questions in complete sentences.

1. What does Esperanza’s mother forget to buy for her?

2. Why does she want a new pair of shoes?

3. How is Esperanza’s family going to go to the baptism?

4. What does uncle Nacho say to Esperanza to convince her to dance with him?



Themes

1. In this chapter Esperanza learns a very important lesson about clothes and appearances.
What refrain do you think could summarize her experience?




Style

Cisneros has a poetic style. She incorporates both vivid imagery and spare prose. She uses both to create a picture of the narrator’s world.

1. What is the meaning behind the word “chanclas”? Can you infer what she really means by that?

2. What words are used on the text to describe the fragility and vulnerability of Esperanza?

3. What makes her attitude change by the end of the party?

Personal response

Should people let their appearance interfere with their attitude toward life? Are clothes more important than peoples’ personalities and behaviors?

___________________________________________________The House on Mango Street

Journal Guide for Chapter Twenty
“Hips”

Questions

Answer the following questions in complete sentences.

1. What are the girls doing while they talk about hips?

2. What do they say hips are good for? What misconceptions does Nenny have?

3. What does the comment made about hips tell you about the girls’ ages?

Quotes
Explain the significance of the following quotes.

One day you wake up and they are there. Ready and waiting like a new Buick with keys in the ignition. Ready to take you where?

She is too many light-years away. She is in a world we don’t belong to anymore.

Themes
The roles of women are discussed in this chapter. What roles do the girls mention in their rhymes? What do the comments about what hips are for show about the girls and their ideas about women and women’s roles?

Style
Cisneros has a poetic style. She incorporates both vivid imagery and spare prose. She uses both to create a picture of the narrator’s world.

1. What words does Esperanza use to describe hips? What metaphor does she use?

2. How do these words create a sense of the inevitability of growing up that the narrator feels?

3. Why doesn’t Nenny join in the language game that the other girls are playing? How do the rhymes that the girls create show something about their personalities?

Personal Response

At what age did you feel that you had left your childhood behind? When did you feel that you were becoming an adult? How would you describe growing up?